This guide to word formation is supplied as a supplement to the Oxford South African Concise
Dictionary. Use it to build your ability to work out the meanings of hundreds of words quickly.
Word Formation
In English, many of the words we know, both new and old, are formed from roots in the classical
languages, Greek and Latin. This is especially true of technical and scientific terms. Others have
roots going back to Old English or Norman French. The Word Formation panels that follow
illustrate the wide variety of words that are made up of some common linguistic elements.
Understanding these root forms can help you to work out the meanings of many other words
formed in the same way.
Full definitions of most of the words in these panels can be found in the alphabetical section of
the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary.
-aemia
(also -haemia) ‘blood’, from Greek haima ‘blood’
Most -aemia words relate to the presence or absence of a particular substance in the blood.
➤ Some -aemia words in current use:
anaemia
hyperaemia
hyperglycaemia
hyperlipaemia
hypocalcaemia
hypoglycaemia
hypovolaemia
ischaemia
leukaemia
septicaemia
uraemia
deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin
excess of blood
excess glucose in the blood
excess fat in the blood
deficiency of calcium in the blood
deficiency of glucose in the blood
a decrease in the volume of circulating blood
inadequate blood supply
malignant disease involving overproduction of
white blood cells
blood poisoning
excess urea in the blood
Greek an ‘without’
Greek huper ‘over’
Greek huper ‘over’ + glukus ‘sweet’
Greek huper ‘over’ + lipos ‘fat’
Greek hupo ‘under’
Greek hupo ‘under’ + glukus ‘sweet’
Greek hupo ‘under’ + volume
Greek iskhein ‘keep back’
Greek leukos ‘white’
Greek sēpein ‘make rotten’
Greek ouron ‘urine’
The US standard spelling is usually -emia, hence anemia, leukemia, and septicemia.
The prefixes haemo- and haemato- are also based on Greek haima ‘blood’, giving rise to such
words as haemoglobin, haemophiliac, and haemorrhoid.
-algia ➤ -algia
arthralgia
myalgia
neuralgia
‘pain’, from Greek algos ‘pain’
words in current use:
pain in a joint
pain in a muscle
pain along a nerve
Greek arthron ‘joint’
Greek mus ‘muscle’
Greek neuron ‘nerve’
The word nostalgia, with its current sense ‘sentimental longing or affection for the past’,
originally (18th century) meant ‘homesickness’, formed on the Greek element nostos
‘return home’.
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
Supplement to the
Oxford South African Concise Dictionary
WORD FORMATION
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
➤ Other
words based on Greek algos ‘pain’:
analgesia,
analgesic
hyperalgesia
-archy ➤ Some
2
relief of pain using drugs; relieving pain
Greek an- ‘not’ + algein ‘feel pain’
heightened sensitivity to pain
Greek huperalgein ‘be in great pain’
‘rule or government’, from Greek arkhein ‘to rule’
of the most common -archy words:
anarchy
hierarchy
a state of disorder
a system ranked according to status
matriarchy
a social organization in which the mother is head
of the family
government by a king or queen
a small group of people holding power
a social organization in which the father is head of
the family
landowners as the dominant class
monarchy
oligarchy
patriarchy
squirearchy
Greek an- ‘without’
Greek hieros ‘sacred’ (because it
was originally used to denote the
system of orders of angels and
other heavenly beings)
Latin mater, matr- ‘mother’
Greek monos ‘alone’
Greek oligoi ‘few’
Greek patria ‘family’
based on squire + hierarchy
A number of -archy words have equivalents ending in -arch (forming nouns, i.e. ‘a ruler’), for
example monarch, matriarch, and patriarch. In modern English, the elements -arch and -archy
are no longer productive, i.e. they are no longer used to form new words.
-arium ‘a place’
The form -arium derives from an adjectival ending in Latin.
➤ Some
-arium words in current use:
aquarium
columbarium
a tank for aquatic fauna and flora
a repository with niches for storing funeral urns
dolphinarium
herbarium
insectarium
leprosarium
oceanarium
planetarium
an aquarium for dolphins
a collection of dried plants
a container for the study of insects
a leper hospital
a large seawater aquarium
a domed building used to project images of the
sky showing the stars and planets
a room with sunbeds or sunlamps
a termite colony
a glass case for keeping small land animals, esp.
frogs, snakes, etc.
an enclosure for keeping animals under observation
solarium
termitarium
terrarium
vivarium
Latin aqua ‘water’
Latin columba ‘dove’ (with allusion to
the niches in a dovecote)
based on dolphin
Latin herba ‘grass, green crop’
based on insect
Greek lepros ‘scaly’
based on ocean
based on planet
Latin sol ‘sun’
based on termite
Latin terra ‘earth’
Latin vivus ‘living’
Some words ending in -arium in this dictionary, such as the chemical elements barium and
samarium, are etymologically unrelated.
3
WORD FORMATION
➤ -cide
‘killing’, from Latin caedere ‘to kill’
words in current use:
1. with the meaning ‘the killing of another’:
filicide
fratricide
genocide
homicide
infanticide
matricide
parricide
the killing of one’s son or daughter
the killing of one’s brother or sister
the killing of a large number of people within a
single population
the killing of a person; murder
the killing of a baby
the killing of one’s mother
the killing of a parent or near relation
patricide
regicide
siblicide
suicide
tyrannicide
uxoricide
the killing of one’s father
the killing of a king
the killing of siblings in animal groups
the intentional killing of oneself
the killing of a tyrant
the killing of one’s wife
Latin filius ‘son’, filia ‘daughter’
Latin frater ‘brother’
Greek genos ‘race’
Latin homo, homin- ‘man’
based on infant
Latin mater, matr- ‘mother’
associated with Latin pater ‘father’ and
parens ‘parent’
Latin pater, patr- ‘father’
Latin rex, reg- ‘king’
based on sibling
Latin sui ‘of oneself’
Latin tyrannus ‘tyrant’
Latin uxor ‘wife’
2. with the meaning ‘a substance used to destroy plant or animal life’:
acaricide
bactericide
biocide
fungicide
germicide
herbicide
pesticide
spermicide
vermicide
a substance used to kill mites or ticks
a substance used to destroy bacteria
a substance used to kill living organisms; a pesticide
a substance used to destroy fungi
a substance used to kill germs
a substance used to destroy vegetation
a substance used to kill pests
a contraceptive that kills spermatozoa
a substance used to kill worms
Greek akari ‘mite, tick’
based on bacteria
Greek bios ‘life’
based on fungi
based on germ
Latin herba ‘green crops, grass’
based on pest
based on sperm
Latin vermis ‘worm’
Many of the words in the first list have a long history in English: homicide, for example, is first
recorded in the late 14th century, while fratricide makes its appearance in the mid 15th century.
In earlier uses the sense was frequently also ‘a person who kills ...’ . This sense is less common in
modern use, though it survives in certain words, e.g. suicide: ‘suicides used to be interred with a
stake through the body’.
The words in the second list are more recent: the vast majority were not used before the late 19th
century or early 20th century. The word spermicide, for example, does not enter the language
until around 1930.
Many -cide words are formed with a connecting -i- (i.e. -icide), as in pesticide and spermicide.
These are formed by analogy with early formations from Latin or via French, in which the -ibelongs to the first element, as in homicide (the -i- in Latin homo, homin-).
-cracy
‘government or rule’, from Greek kratia ‘power, rule’
The words democracy and aristocracy have their origins in Greek: democracy (dēmos ‘the
people’) referred to direct rule through assembly by the citizens of the ancient Greek city
states, while aristocracy (aristos ‘best’) referred to rule by the best – those best qualified to rule
by education or social position. In English these words (adopted in the 15th/16th century) have
acquired somewhat different, though clearly related, meanings: the chief sense in the current
use of aristocracy, for example, is ‘the highest social class, comprising people of noble birth
with hereditary titles’.
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-cide
WORD FORMATION
4
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
➤ Some -cracy words in current use:
plutocracy
theocracy
autocracy
bureaucracy
government by the wealthy
government by priests (as God’s representatives)
government by one person with absolute power
a system of government by state officials
gerontocracy
meritocracy
technocracy
government by old people
government by those selected on merit
government by technical experts
Greek ploutos ‘wealth’
Greek theos ‘God’
Greek autos ‘self’
French bureau ‘baize’ (alluding to the
baize covering a desk)
Greek gerōn, geront- ‘old man’
based on merit
Greek tekhnē ‘art, craft’
The presence in original Greek elements of the letter -o- (in dēmos, aristos, etc.) has given rise to
the insertion of -o- in some English formations, even where this is superfluous, as in meritocracy
(where, strictly speaking, the logical formation is meritcracy).
➤ Related
words:
-cratic forming adjectives, e.g. aristocratic ‘relating to the aristocracy’
-culture‘cultivation or husbandry, especially of a specified animal or plant’ from
Anglo-Norman and Middle French culture
➤ Some
-culture words in current use:
agriculture
apiculture
aviculture
floriculture
horticulture
mariculture
pisciculture
sericulture
silviculture
viniculture
viticulture
➤ Archaic
farming
bee-keeping
rearing of birds
cultivation of flowers
gardening
cultivation of sea fish or other marine life
breeding of fish
cultivation of silk and silkworms
cultivation of trees
less common term for viticulture
cultivation of grapevines
Latin ager, agri- ‘field’
Latin apis ‘bee’
Latin avis ‘bird’
Latin flos, flor- ‘flower’
Latin hortus ‘garden’
Latin mare, mari- ‘sea’
Latin piscis ‘fish’
Latin sericum ‘silk’
Latin silva ‘wood’
Latin vinum ‘wine’
Latin vitis ‘vine’
or rare -culture words:
domiculture
urbiculture
housekeeping
development of cities and towns
Latin domus ‘house’
Latin urbs, urb- ‘city’
Most -culture words were first used in English in the 19th century, though a few, notably
agriculture and horticulture, are recorded earlier (17th century).
-dactyl
from Greek daktulos ‘finger, toe’
➤ U
sed
alone, dactyl is a technical term in prosody. However, the literal meaning of the
Greek root daktulos ‘finger’ forms part of a number of technical (chiefly zoological) terms
in English:
artiodactyl
monodactyl
pentadactyl
a mammal belonging to the order of even-toed
ungulates, such as ruminants, camels, and pigs
having only one finger or toe on each hand or foot
having five toes or fingers
Greek artios ‘even’
Greek monos ‘one’
Greek pente ‘five’
5
WORD FORMATION
polydactyl
pterodactyl
tetradactyl
tridactyl
zygodactyl
-derm
ectoderm
endoderm
epidermis
hypodermic
mesoderm
pachyderm
placoderm
pyoderma
scleroderma
taxidermy
xeroderma
a mammal belonging to the order of odd-toed
ungulates, such as horses and rhinoceroses
having more than five fingers or toes on each hand
or foot
a type of fossil warm-blooded flying reptile
having four toes or fingers
having three toes or fingers
(of a bird) having two toes pointing forward and
two backward
Greek perissos ‘uneven’
Greek polu- ‘many’
Greek pteron ‘wing’
Greek tettares ‘four’
Greek treis ‘three’
based on zygo-
(also -derma and -dermy) from Greek derma, dermat- ‘skin’
the outermost layer of cells or tissues of an embryo
the innermost layer of cells or tissues of an embryo
the surface part of the skin of an animal
relating to the region immediately beneath the skin
(also, a needle used to inject beneath the skin)
the middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo
large mammal with thick skin (e.g. an elephant)
a fossil fish covered in flat bony plates
a skin infection with pus formation
the hardening and contraction of the skin and
connective tissue
the preparation and stuffing of animal skins
a disease characterized by dryness of the skin
Greek ektos ‘outside’
Greek endon ‘within’
Greek epi ‘upon’
Greek hupo ‘under’
Greek mesos ‘middle’
Greek pakhus ‘thick’
Greek plax, plak- ‘flat plate’
Greek puon ‘pus’
Greek sklēros ‘hard’
Greek taxis ‘arrangement’
Greek xēros ‘dry’
The prefix dermato- is also derived from Greek, and gives rise to such English words as
dermatology, dermatitis, and dermatomyositis.
-drome
➤ A
from Greek dromos ‘running, course’
number of seemingly unrelated English words are formed using the element -drome:
aerodrome
hippodrome
palindrome
syndrome
velodrome
a small airport (also used earlier (1890s) in the sense
‘aeroplane’)
(in the ancient world) a course for chariot races; in
modern use, in names of theatres and concert
halls
a sequence of letters that reads the same backwards
as forwards
a group of symptoms occurring together
a steeply banked cycle-racing track
Greek aēr ‘air’
Greek hippos ‘horse’
Greek palin ‘back again’
Greek sun- ‘together’
French vélo ‘bicycle’
The term dromedary, denoting the Arabian (or one-humped) camel, is also related
etymologically, deriving from Latin dromedarius (camelus) ‘swift-running camel’, based on
Greek dromas ‘runner’.
-ectomy
➤ Most
from Greek -ektome ‘excision’
-ectomy words relate to surgical removal of specified parts of the body:
appendectomy
clitoridectomy
hysterectomy
lumpectomy
mastectomy
an operation to remove the appendix
removal of the clitoris; female circumcision
an operation to remove the womb
an operation to remove a lump (tumour)
an operation to remove a breast
based on appendix
based on clitoris
Greek hustera ‘womb’
based on lump
Greek mastos ‘breast’
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
perissodactyl
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
WORD FORMATION
nephrectomy
pancreatectomy
vasectomy
-genic
➤ 1.
an operation to remove a kidney
removal of the pancreas
male sterilization by cutting and sealing each vas
deferens
6
Greek nephros ‘kidney’
based on pancreas
based on vas
based on Greek genēs ‘born’
With the sense ‘producing or produced by’:
allergenic
allogenic
anthropogenic
authigenic
carcinogenic
cryogenics
cryptogenic
eugenics
hypo-allergenic
neurogenic
pathogenic
psychogenic
pyrogenic
➤ Related
causing an allergic reaction
(in geology) transported from elsewhere
originating in human activity
(in geology) formed in the present position
having the potential to cause cancer
the production of very low temperatures (e.g. as a
way of keeping a human being alive)
(of a disease) of unknown origin
the science of controlled breeding in a population
not causing an allergic reaction
originating in the nervous system
producing disease
having a psychological, rather than physical, cause
inducing fever
based on allergy
Greek allos ‘other’
Greek anthrōpos ‘human being’
Greek authigenēs ‘born on the spot’
Greek karkinos ‘crab’ (see cancer)
Greek kruos ‘frost’
Greek kruptos ‘hidden’
Greek eu ‘well’
Greek hupo ‘under’ + allergy
Greek neuron ‘nerve’
Greek pathos ‘disease’
Greek psukhē ‘soul, mind’
Greek pur ‘fire’
words:
-gen forming nouns, as pathogen ‘a bacterium, virus, etc. that can cause disease’
➤ 2.
With the sense ‘well suited to’:
The term photogenic is the earliest in this sense (first recorded in the 1920s): the others are
formed by analogy with it, as telegenic ‘well suited to television’, radiogenic, etc.
-gon‘a plane figure with a specified number of straight sides’, from Greek -gōnos
‘-angled’
decagon
dodecagon
hendecagon
heptagon
hexagon
nonagon
octagon
pentagon
polygon
-graphy
ten sides
twelve sides
eleven sides
seven sides
six sides
nine sides
eight sides
five sides
many sides
Greek deka ‘ten’
Greek dōdeka ‘twelve’
Greek hendeka ‘eleven’
Greek hepta ‘seven’
Greek hex ‘six’
Latin nonus ‘ninth’
Greek oktō ‘eight’
Greek pente ‘five’
Greek polloi ‘many’
from Greek -graphia ‘writing’
➤ A
number of -graphy words in English relate directly to writing, both the techniques used
and the subject matter addressed:
autobiography
biography
calligraphy
an account of one’s own life
an account of a person’s life
decorative handwriting
Greek autos ‘self’ + bios ‘life’
Greek bios ‘life’
Greek kallos ‘beauty’
WORD FORMATION
chirography
epigraphy
hagiography
orthography
palaeography
stenography
typography
➤ Other
handwriting, esp. as distinct from printed matter
the interpretation of ancient inscriptions
a biography idealizing its subject
spelling, esp. correct spelling
the study of ancient writing
writing and transcribing shorthand
the process of setting type; the style of printed
matter
Greek kheir ‘hand’
Greek epigraphein ‘write on’
Greek hagios ‘holy’
Greek orthos ‘correct’
Greek palaios ‘ancient’
Greek stenos ‘narrow’
Greek tupos ‘impression, force’
-graphy words relate to the production of images, graphs, or diagrams:
cartography
the science of drawing maps
encephalography a technique for recording electrical activity in
the brain
holography
the production of three-dimensional images
(holograms)
lithography
a printing process
mammography the use of X-rays to locate breast abnormalities
photography
the taking of photographs
pornography
writing and images designed to stimulate sexual
excitement
radiography
the production of images by X-rays, gamma rays, etc.
tomography
a technique for producing an image showing a
cross-section through the body
topography
the arrangement of physical features of an area
Latin carta, from Greek khartēs
‘papyrus leaf’
Greek enkephalos ‘brain’
Greek holos ‘whole’
Greek lithos ‘stone’
Latin mamma ‘breast’
Greek phōs, phōt- ‘light’
Greek pornographos ‘writing about
prostitutes’
based on radio
Greek tomos ‘slice’
Greek topos ‘place’
➤ O
ne
of the most productive uses in English forms words with the meaning ‘a descriptive
science or study’ (many of the words listed above also have this meaning):
cosmography
crystallography
ethnography
geography
oceanography
petrography
-hedron
➤ M
ost
the science of the universe
the science of crystals
the study of different peoples
the study of the physical features of the earth and
their relation to human populations
the science of the sea
the study of rocks
Greek kosmos ‘order, world’
Greek krustallos ‘crystal’
Greek ethnos ‘nation’
Greek gē ‘earth’
based on ocean
Greek petros ‘stone’
from Greek hedra ‘base’
-hedron words are used with the sense ‘a solid figure having a specified number of
plane faces’:
decahedron
dodecahedron
heptahedron
hexahedron
icosahedron
octahedron
pentahedron
polyhedron
tetrahedron
trihedron
ten faces
twelve faces
seven faces
six faces
twenty faces
eight faces
five faces
many faces
four faces (a triangular pyramid)
three faces (in addition to the ends)
Greek deka ‘ten’
Greek dōdeka ‘twelve’
Greek hepta ‘seven’
Greek hex ‘six’
Greek eikosi ‘twenty’
Greek oktō ‘eight’
Greek pente ‘five’
Greek polloi ‘many’
Greek tettares ‘four’
Greek treis ‘three’
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
7
WORD FORMATION
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-ine
8
forming adjectives relating to animals
➤ S
ome
-ine words in this group are used in general vocabulary, while others relate to a
specific group (sometimes a subfamily ending in -inae) and are found only in technical
contexts:
1. Mammals
bovine
canine
caprine
colubrine
equine
feline
leonine
lupine
murine
ovine
piscine
porcine
taurine
ursine
vulpine
relating to cattle
relating to dogs
relating to goats
relating to snakes
relating to horses
relating to cats
relating to lions
relating to wolves
relating to mice or other rodents
relating to sheep
relating to fish
relating to pigs
relating to bulls
relating to bears
relating to foxes
Latin bos, bov- ‘ox’
Latin canis ‘dog’
Latin caper, capr- ‘goat’
Latin coluber ‘snake’
Latin equus ‘horse’
Latin feles ‘cat’
Latin leo, leon- ‘lion’
Latin lupus ‘wolf’
Latin mus, mur- ‘mouse’
Latin ovis ‘sheep’
Latin piscis ‘fish’
Latin porcus ‘pig’
Latin taurus ‘bull’
Latin ursus ‘bear’
Latin vulpes ‘fox’
relating to eagles
relating to crows or ravens
a bird of the swallow family
denoting perching birds
relating to parrots
Latin aquila ‘eagle’
Latin corvus ‘raven’
Latin hirundo ‘swallow’
Latin passer ‘sparrow’
Greek psittakos ‘parrot’
2. Birds
aquiline
corvine
hirundine
passerine
psittacine
-itis
denoting an inflammatory disease
In Greek, -itis is the feminine form of adjectives ending in itēs, and was already used in Greek
forms with the noun nosos ‘disease’ understood, even though not expressed.
➤ There
are many common words in English formed with -itis:
appendicitis
arthritis
bronchitis
bursitis
cystitis
encephalomyelitis
inflammation of the appendix
disease causing inflammation of joints
inflammation of the bronchial tubes
inflammation of a bursa
inflammation of the urinary bladder
inflammation of the brain and spinal cord
gastro-enteritis
inflammation of the stomach and intestine
hepatitis
laryngitis
meningitis
disease causing inflammation of the liver
inflammation of the larynx
disease causing inflammation of the meninges
based on appendix
Greek arthron ‘joint’
Greek bronkhos ‘windpipe’
based on bursa
Greek kustis ‘bladder’
Greek enkephalos ‘brain’ + muelos
‘marrow’
Greek gaster, gastr- ‘stomach’ + enteron
‘intestine’
Greek hēpar, hēpat- ‘liver’
based on larynx
Greek mēninx, mēning- ‘membrane’
The form -itis is also used in the humorous coinage of words with the sense ‘a particular state
of mind or tendency seen as a disease’ e.g. electionitis (used in 1945 by Winston Churchill),
media-itis, phone-itis.
9
WORD FORMATION
from Greek logos ‘word, speech, telling’
➤ S
ome
of the most common -logue words, typically relating to a particular type of speech
or text:
catalogue
a list of items systematically ordered
dialogue
epilogue
ideologue
monologue
prologue
travelogue
a conversation
a section serving as a comment at the end of a text
a dogmatic supporter of an ideology
a long speech by a single actor
a separate introductory section to a work
a film or text about travel experiences
Greek katalegein ‘pick out’ (from
kata ‘down’)
Greek dia ‘through’
Greek epi ‘in addition’
based on idea
Greek monos ‘alone’
Greek pro ‘before’
based on travel
Many -logue words are spelled -log in US English, as catalog, dialog, and epilog.
The word analogue relates to logos meaning ‘ratio, proportion’, and means literally ‘up to
proportion’.
-logy
from Greek logos ‘word, discourse, account, etc.’
➤ Th
e
chief sense in English -logy words is ‘a subject of study or interest’, and there are many
hundreds of such words, represented here by some of the most widely used:
anthropology
archaeology
entomology
epidemiology
the study of humankind
the study of human history and prehistory through
excavations, etc.
the study of the stars and planets as having an
influence on human affairs
the study of living organisms
the study of organisms in relation to their
environment
the study of insects
the study of diseases
geology
gynaecology
meteorology
oncology
philology
sociology
the science of the physical structure of the earth
the branch of medicine relating to women
the science of the atmosphere
the branch of medicine relating to tumours
the study of the development of languages
the study of human society
astrology
biology
ecology
Greek anthrōpos ‘human being’
Greek arkhaios ‘ancient’
Greek astron ‘star’
Greek bios ‘life’
Greek oikos ‘house’
Greek entomon ‘insect’
Greek epidēmia ‘prevalence of disease’
(from epi- ‘on, above’ + dēmos
‘people’)
Greek gē ‘earth’
Greek gunē, gunaik- ‘woman’
Greek meteōron, from meteōros ‘lofty’
Greek onkos ‘mass’
Greek philologos ‘fond of words’
Latin socius ‘companion’
➤ Th
e
-logy suffix is also used with the senses relating more generally to types of language
or discourse:
anthology
a published collection of works
apology
expression of acknowledgement of fault
etymology
eulogy
ideology
the study of word origins
a song or speech of praise
a system of (political) ideas on which a theory
is based
a system of methods
unnecessary repetition within a statement using
different words
three related works
methodology
tautology
trilogy
Greek anthos ‘flower’ (i.e. ‘the flowers
of verse’)
Greek apologia ‘speech in one’s
defence’ (from apo ‘away’)
Greek etumon, from etumos ‘true’
Greek eulogia ‘praise’ (from eu ‘well’)
Greek idea ‘form’
Greek methodos ‘pursuit of knowledge’
Greek tauto- ‘same’
Greek treis ‘three’
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-logue
WORD FORMATION
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
➤ Some
10
of the oldest -logy words:
genealogy
14th century: line of continuous descent from an
ancestor
15th century: a set of myths relating to a particular
tradition
14th century: the study of religion and the nature
of God
mythology
theology
Greek genea ‘race, generation’
Greek muthos ‘myth’
Greek theos ‘God’
Some important -logy words are of relatively recent origin: biology, ecology, and sociology, for
example, date from the 19th century.
-lysis
‘decomposition’, from Greek lusis ‘loosening’
➤ Most
-lysis words are used in technical fields, in which the first element indicates either the
agent of decomposition or the substance affected by decomposition:
catalysis
using a catalyst to accelerate a chemical reaction
electrolysis
fibrinolysis
glycolysis
histolysis
hydrolysis
chemical decomposition using an electric current
breakdown by enzymes of the fibrin in blood clots
breakdown by enzymes of glucose
breakdown of tissue
chemical breakdown due to reaction with water
Greek kataluein ‘dissolve’ (kata ‘down’
+ luein ‘loosen’)
electrobased on fibrin
Greek glukus ‘sugar, sweet’
Greek histos ‘web, tissue’
Greek hudōr ‘water’
➤ A
number of words containing the same element are of earlier origin and tend to have less
technical meanings:
analysis
paralysis
detailed examination
loss of the ability to move
-mania
➤ Some
‘madness, obsessiveness’
-mania words in current use:
Anglomania
bibliomania
dipsomania
egomania
erotomania
kleptomania
megalomania
monomania
nymphomania
pyromania
➤ Related
maniac
maniacal
Greek analuein ‘unloosen’
Greek paraluein (para ‘beside, beyond’)
excessive admiration of English customs
passionate enthusiasm for books
a craving for alcohol; alcoholism
obsessive egotism
excessive sexual desire
an irresistible urge to steal
obsession with power
obsession with one thing
uncontrollable sexual desire in a woman
obsessive desire to set things on fire
Latin Anglus ‘English’
Greek biblion ‘book’
Greek dipsa ‘thirst’
based on ego
Greek erōs, erōt- ‘sexual love’
Greek kleptēs ‘thief’
megalo- (from Greek megas ‘great’)
Greek monos ‘alone’
Latin nympha ‘nymph’
Greek pur ‘fire’
words:
forming nouns, e.g. megalomaniac ‘a person obsessed with power’
forming adjectives, e.g. egomaniacal ‘of or relating to excessive egotism’
The use of -mane, taken from or imitating French, to form nouns meaning ‘a person who has a
mania for ... ’ is now relatively rare. It survives in only a few words, e.g. balletomane, bibliomane.
WORD FORMATION
-morph
from Greek morphē ‘form’
➤ F
requently
also found as adjectives -morphic or -morphous, the -morph element gives rise
to a variety of both technical and general words:
amorphous
having no clearly defined form
anthropomorphic tending to attribute human characteristics
to animals or objects
dimorphic
(of an organism) occurring in two different forms
geomorphology the study of physical features of the earth’s surface
isomorphic
similar in form or relation
metamorphic
(of rock) having undergone transformation by
heat, pressure, etc.
morphology
the study of the forms of words
zoomorphic
having an animal form
-nomy
Greek a- ‘without’
Greek anthrōpos ‘human being’
Greek di- ‘two’
Greek gē ‘earth’ + -logy
Greek isos ‘equal’
meta- (denoting a change of condition)
-logy (in the sense ‘word’)
Greek zōion ‘animal’
‘an area of knowledge’, from Greek -nomia
➤ Th
e
Greek root -nomia is related to nomos ‘law’ and nemein ‘distribute, manage’. It has
given rise to a small and rather diverse group of words in English:
agronomy
antinomy
astronomy
autonomy
economy
gastronomy
taxonomy
the science of agriculture
a paradox
the science of space and celestial objects
freedom of independent action
overall production and consumption and supply of
money within a region
the art of cooking (and serving, etc.) good food
the science of classification
Greek agros ‘field’
Greek anti ‘against’
Greek astron ‘star’
Greek autos ‘self’
Greek oikonomia ‘household
management’ (from oikos ‘house’)
Greek gaster, gastr- ‘stomach’
Greek taxis ‘arrangement’
The oldest English -nomy word in current use is astronomy, which has a first recorded date of 1205.
-oid
➤ Many
‘form or resemblance’, from Greek -oeidēs, related to eidos ‘form’
technical and semi-technical words are formed using -oid:
amoeboid
android
dendroid
diploid
fibroid
gadoid
haploid
hominoid
humanoid
paranoid
Polaroid
rheumatoid
thyroid
resembling an amoeba
a robot with a human appearance
tree-shaped
having two complete sets of chromosomes
a benign tumour of fibrous tissue
a fish of an order including cod and hake
having a single set of unpaired chromosomes
a primate of a group that includes humans
a being resembling a human
relating to paranoia
(trademark) a composite material with the property
of polarizing light, used in sunglasses, etc.
relating to rheumatism
a gland in the neck secreting hormones regulating
growth and metabolism
based on amoeba
Greek anēr, andr- ‘man’
Greek dendron ‘tree’
Greek diplous ‘double’
based on fibre
Greek gados ‘cod’
Greek haploos ‘single’
Latin homo, homin- ‘man’
based on human
Greek para ‘irregular’ + noos ‘mind’
based on polarize
based on rheumatism
Greek thureos ‘oblong shield’ (with
reference to its shape)
The word tabloid, which is first recorded with its current sense of a ‘popular newspaper’ in
the early 20th century, is formed on tablet + -oid, and reflects the notion of something that is
‘concentrated’ and ‘easily assimilated’.
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
11
WORD FORMATION
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-onym
➤ 1.
from Greek onoma ‘name’
Types of name:
cryptonym
eponym
a code name
a name or word taken from a person’s name
pseudonym
toponym
a fictitious name, as used by an author
a place name
➤ 2.
12
Greek kruptos ‘hidden’
Greek epōnumos ‘given as a name’
(from epi ‘upon’)
Greek pseudēs ‘false’
Greek topos ‘place’
Words having a specific relationship to another word or words:
acronym
antonym
homonym
a word formed from the initial letters of other words
a word opposite in meaning to another
each of two words with the same written form but
different meanings and origin
a word used to substitute for another
a word or phrase with the same (or similar) meaning
as another
metonym
synonym
➤ Related
Greek metōnumia ‘change of name’
Greek sun- ‘with’
words:
forming adjectives, e.g. synonymous ‘meaning the same as’. Some -onymous forms are
more common than their counterparts in -onym, e.g. anonymous ‘of unknown identity or
authorship’ is more frequently encountered than anonym ‘an unknown person or thing’.
-onymous
-pathy
➤ Some
Greek akron ‘end, tip’
Greek anti- ‘against’
Greek homos ‘same’
from Greek patheia ‘suffering, feeling’
-pathy words relate directly to the general sense ‘feeling’:
antipathy
apathy
empathy
sympathy
telepathy
feeling of aversion
lack of interest or concern
understanding and sharing the feelings of others
feeling of concern and pity for another’s misfortune
communication of thoughts by means other than
the known senses
➤ Other
-pathy words relate to medical disorders and treatments:
allopathy
homeopathy
idiopathy
osteopathy
psychopathy
sociopathy
➤ Related
-path
treatment of disease by using drugs with effects
opposite to the symptoms (cf. homeopathy)
a system of complementary medicine using minute
doses of a substance which would normally
produce symptoms of a disease
a disease arising spontaneously without known cause
a system of complementary medicine using
manipulation of the skeleton and musculature
mental illness or disorder
personality disorder involving extreme antisocial
behaviour
Greek antipathēs ‘opposed in feeling’
Greek apathēs ‘without feeling’
Greek empatheia (from em- ‘in’)
Greek sumpatheia (from sun- ‘with’)
Greek tēle- ‘far off’
Greek allos ‘other’
Greek homoios ‘same’
Greek idios ‘own’
Greek osteon ‘bone’
psychosocio-
words:
forming nouns, e.g. osteopath ‘a practitioner in osteopathy’
Certain -path nouns are more established than their -pathy counterparts, in particular sociopath
and psychopath. The latter typically has a more restricted use than psychopathy, implying ‘a
person having extreme abnormal and violent social behaviour’.
-pathic
forming adjectives, e.g. telepathic ‘of or relating to telepathy’
13
WORD FORMATION
philos ‘loving’
➤ Some
-phile words in current use:
bibliophile
cinephile
electrophile
Francophile
halophile
oenophile
paedophile
technophile
thermophile
videophile
➤ Related
a person who loves books
a cinema enthusiast
(in chemistry) a substance that attracts electrons
a person who loves France or the French
an organism that thrives in salty conditions
a wine connoisseur
a person who is sexually attracted to children
an enthusiast for new technology
an organism that thrives in hot temperatures
a video enthusiast
Greek biblion ‘book’
cineelectroLatin Francus ‘Frank’
Greek hals, halo- ‘salt’
Greek oinos ‘wine’
Greek pais, paid- ‘child’
Greek tekhnē ‘art, craft’
Greek thermos ‘hot’
video-
words:
forming nouns, e.g. necrophilia ‘sexual attraction to dead bodies’ (Greek nekros ‘corpse’)
forming adjectives (and sometimes nouns), e.g. haemophiliac ‘of or having haemophilia’
or ‘a person with haemophilia’
-philia
-philiac
Most -phile and -philia words are of recent origin: paedophile, for example, is first recorded in
1906, while Francophile and bibliophile first appear in the 19th century.
-phobia
➤ Some
‘extreme or irrational fear or dislike’, from Greek
of the commonest phobias:
acrophobia
agoraphobia
arachnophobia
claustrophobia
cyberphobia
fear of
fear of
fear of
fear of
fear of
gynophobia
homophobia
hydrophobia
photophobia
technophobia
xenophobia
fear of women
fear of homosexuality
fear of water
extreme sensitivity to light
fear of new technology
fear or dislike of people from other countries
➤ Unusual
heights
open or public places
spiders
confined places
computer technology
Greek akron ‘summit’
Greek agora ‘place of assembly’
Greek arakhnē ‘spider’
Latin claustrum ‘lock, bolt’
cyber- (from Greek kubernētēs
‘steersman’)
Greek gunē ‘woman’
Greek homos ‘same’
Greek hudōr ‘water’
Greek phōs, phōt- ‘light’
Greek tekhnē ‘art, craft’
Greek xenos ‘stranger’
or interesting phobias (mostly rare or obsolete words):
Anglophobia
arachibutyrophobia
batrachophobia
bibliophobia
brontophobia
deipnophobia
ergophobia
erythrophobia
hippophobia
logophobia
mycophobia
panophobia
fear of England
fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of
one’s mouth
fear of frogs
fear or dread of books
fear of thunderstorms
fear of dinner parties
fear of work
intolerance of the colour red
fear of horses
fear of words
fear of mushrooms
terror; excessive panic
Latin Anglus ‘England’
Latin arachis ‘peanut’ + butyrum
‘butter’
Greek batrakhos ‘frog’
Greek biblion ‘book’
Greek brontē ‘thunder’
Greek deipnos ‘dinner’
Greek ergon ‘work’
Greek eruthros ‘red’
Greek hippos ‘horse’
Greek logos ‘word’
Greek mukēs ‘mushroom’
Greek pan ‘all’
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-phile‘a person or organism with a fondness for or tendency towards’, from Greek
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
WORD FORMATION
symmetrophobia
thalassophobia
triskaidekaphobia
➤ Related
dread of symmetry
fear of the sea
superstition regarding the number 13
forming nouns, e.g. technophobe ‘a person with an irrational fear of technology’
forming adjectives, e.g. xenophobic ‘of or relating to xenophobia’
➤ Oldest
phobias:
hydrophobia
tyrannophobia
psychrophobia
aversion to water (first recorded example from 1547, spelled hidroforbia)
fear of tyrants (first recorded in 1651)
fear of cold things (first recorded in 1727)
phobias:
Europhobia
Islamophobia
-phone
➤ 1.
hatred of Europe and the European Union (1990s)
irrational hatred or fear of Islam (1990s)
from Greek phōnē ‘sound, voice’
Instruments connected with sound:
aerophone
earphone
gramophone
headphones
hydrophone
megaphone
microphone
technical term for a wind instrument
device worn on the ear to listen to recorded or
broadcast sound
old-fashioned term for a record player
saxophone
pair of earphones
device for detecting sound waves under water
funnel-shaped device for amplifying the voice
device for picking up sound for amplification,
recording, etc.
a metal wind instrument
sousaphone
a type of tuba
telephone
device used for transmitting the voice over
long distance
➤ 2.
based on symmetry
Greek thalassa ‘sea’
Greek treiskaideka ‘thirteen’
words:
-phobe
-phobic
➤ New
14
Greek aēr ‘air’
based on ear
reversed use of -gram ‘something
written or recorded’
based on head
Greek hudōr ‘water’
Greek megas ‘great’
Greek mikros ‘small’
from the name of the instrumentmaker Adolphe Sax
from the name of the composer
J. P. Sousa
Greek tēle- ‘far off’
A person speaking a particular language:
anglophone
francophone
lusophone
English
French
Portuguese
Latin Anglus ‘English’
Latin Francus ‘Frank’
from Lusitania, ancient Roman
province occupying modern-day
Portugal
The word telephone (shortened to phone) has given rise to words denoting types of telephone or
related devices, as: answerphone, cellphone, entryphone, mobile phone, payphone, videophone.
➤ Related
-phony
-phonic
words:
forming nouns, e.g. cacophony ‘harsh discordant sounds’ (from Greek kakos ‘bad’);
euphony ‘pleasing sounds’ (from Greek eu ‘well’)
forming adjectives, e.g. polyphonic ‘having two or more vocal parts’ (from Greek
polu- ‘many’); quadraphonic ‘through four channels’ (from Latin quattuor ‘four’)
15
WORD FORMATION
ptero-
from Greek pteron ‘feather, wing’
Used as the suffix -ptera in orders and groups of biological taxonomy, particularly of
insects:
Anisoptera
Chiroptera
Coleoptera
Diptera
Hymenoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Siphonaptera
Trichoptera
Zygoptera
➤ Related
Greek anisos ‘unequal’
Greek kheir ‘hand’
Greek koleos ‘sheath’
Greek dipteros ‘two-winged’
Greek humenopteros ‘membranewinged’ (from humēn ‘membrane’)
Greek lepis, lepid- ‘scale’
Greek orthos ‘straight, right’
Greek siphōn ‘tube’ + apteros ‘wingless’
Greek thrix, trikhos ‘hair’
Greek zugon ‘yoke’
words:
-pterous
-pteran
➤ 2.
a suborder of insects comprising the dragonflies
an order of mammals comprising the bats
an order of insects comprising the beetles
an order of insects comprising the two-winged or
true flies
an order of insects including bees, wasps, and ants,
having four transparent wings
an order of insects comprising butterflies and moths
an order of insects including grasshoppers and
crickets
an order of insects comprising the fleas
an order of insects comprising the caddis flies
a suborder of insects comprising the damselflies
forming adjectives, e.g. coleopterous ‘of or relating to the order Coleoptera’
forming nouns, e.g. lepidopteran ‘an insect belonging to the order Lepidoptera’
-pter words in non-zoological contexts:
gyrocopter
helicopter
a small single-seater autogiro
a type of aircraft with horizontally revolving rotors
-saur, -saurus
based on gyro- + (heli)copter
Greek helix ‘spiral’
‘a fossil reptile’, from Greek sauros ‘lizard’
➤ M
ost -saur and -saurus words relate to dinosaurs (including the word dinosaur itself ). In
each case -saurus is used to form the name of the genus in modern Latin and -saur for the
corresponding shorter anglicized form. In practice, however, both -saur and -saurus words
are used in English, some of the best known being:
apatosaurus
a huge herbivorous dinosaur with a long neck and
tail (also called brontosaurus)
brachiosaurus
a huge herbivorous dinosaur with forelegs much
longer than the hind legs
alternative (and less technical) term for apatosaurus
a Mesozoic fossil reptile of a large and diverse group
a small carnivorous bipedal dinosaur
a large, mainly bipedal, herbivorous dinosaur with
flattened jaws
a fossil marine reptile resembling a dolphin
a large carnivorous bipedal dinosaur
a large fossil marine reptile with paddle-like limbs
and a long neck
a fossil warm-blooded flying reptile
a large herbivorous dinosaur with a double row of
bony plates along its back
a very large carnivorous dinosaur with powerful jaws
and small claw-like front legs
brontosaurus
dinosaur
dromaeosaur
hadrosaur
ichthyosaur
megalosaurus
plesiosaur
pterosaur
stegosaur
tyrannosaur
Greek apatē ‘deceit’ (because of the
deceptive similarity between certain
bones of apatosaurus and some
other fossil reptiles)
Greek brakhiōn ‘arm’
Greek brontē ‘thunder’
Greek deinos ‘terrible’
Greek dromaios ‘swift-running’
Greek hadros ‘thick, stout’
Greek ikhthus ‘fish’
Greek megas, megal- ‘great’
Greek plēsios ‘near’ (because closely
related to the lizards)
Greek pteron ‘wing’
Greek stegē ‘covering’
Greek turannos ‘tyrant’
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
➤ 1.
WORD FORMATION
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-scope
➤ Most
16
from Greek skopein ‘look at’
-scope words have the sense ‘an instrument used in observation or examination’:
arthroscope
electroscope
endoscope
fibrescope
gastroscope
gyroscope
kaleidoscope
microscope
oscilloscope
periscope
spinthariscope
stereoscope
stethoscope
stroboscope
telescope
an instrument for inspecting the interior of a joint
an instrument for detecting electric charge
an instrument for viewing internal organs
a fibre-optic device for viewing normally inaccessible
structures
an instrument for inspecting the stomach
a device used to provide or maintain stability,
consisting of a disc spinning rapidly about an axis
a tube containing mirrors and coloured glass,
forming changing patterns when the base is
rotated
an instrument for viewing tiny objects through
magnification
a device for viewing oscillations on the screen of a
cathode ray tube
a device having a series of mirrors, for viewing
objects normally out of direct line of sight
an instrument for viewing alpha particles by flashes
on a fluorescent screen
a device for creating an image with depth, using two
photos from different angles
an instrument for listening to a person’s heartbeat
a device producing a bright, rapidly flashing light
an instrument for making distant objects appear
nearer
Greek arthron ‘joint’
electroGreek endon ‘within’
based on fibre optics
Greek gastēr, gastr- ‘stomach’
Greek guros ‘a ring’
Greek kalos ‘beautiful’ + eidos ‘form’
Greek mikros ‘small’
oscillo-
Greek peri ‘about, around’
Greek spintharis ‘spark’
Greek stereos ‘solid’
Greek stēthos ‘breast’
Greek strobos ‘whirling’
Greek tēle- ‘far off’
The majority of the -scope words above are of 19th or 20th century origin, including stethoscope,
periscope, and stroboscope. A few are earlier: microscope and telescope are first recorded in
the 17th century, for example. The term telescopio is found in the letters of Galileo from 1611,
replacing earlier terms for similar devices, such as perspicillum (Latin perspicere ‘look through’)
and conspicillum (Latin conspicere ‘look at attentively’).
The word horoscope is of very early origin, being used in astrological senses in Old English.
It derives from Greek hōroskopos (hōra ‘hour’ + skopos ‘observer’).
-therm, -thermal, etc.
ectotherm
endotherm
endothermic
eurythermal
exothermic
geothermal
homeotherm
isotherm
poikilotherm
stenothermal
from Greek thermē ‘heat’
an animal dependent on external sources of body
heat
an animal dependent on internal generation of heat
(of a reaction) accompanied by the absorption of
heat
(of an organism) tolerant of a wide temperature range
(of a reaction) accompanied by the release of heat
relating to the internal heat of the earth
an organism that maintains constant body heat by
metabolic activity
a line on a map joining places of equal temperature
an organism that cannot regulate body temperature
internally
(of an organism) able to tolerate only small ranges in
temperature
Greek ektos ‘outside’
Greek endon ‘within’
Greek endon ‘within’
Greek eurus ‘wide’
Greek exō ‘outside’
Greek gē ‘earth’
Greek homoios ‘like’
Greek isos ‘equal’
Greek poikilos ‘varied’
Greek stenos ‘narrow’
The dish called lobster thermidor is named after Thermidor, a month in the French Republican
Calendar of 1793–1805 corresponding to parts of July and August, itself based on Greek thermē
‘heat’ and dōron ‘gift’.
17
WORD FORMATION
➤ Commonest
carnivorous
detritivorous
frugivorous
herbivorous
insectivorous
nectarivorous
omnivorous
piscivorous
➤ Rarer
‘feeding on a specified food’, from Latin vorare ‘to devour’
-vorous words:
feeding on flesh
feeding on detritus
feeding on fruit
feeding on plants
feeding on insects
feeding on nectar
feeding on both plants and animals
feeding on fish
Latin caro, carn- ‘flesh’
based on detritus
Latin frux, frug- ‘fruit’
Latin herba ‘green crops, herb’
based on insect
based on nectar
Latin omnis ‘all’
Latin piscis ‘fish’
-vorous words:
baccivorous
hominivorous
lignivorous
mellivorous
merdivorous
ovivorous
sanguivorous
➤ Related
feeding on berries
feeding on human beings
feeding on wood
feeding on honey
feeding on dung
feeding on eggs
feeding on blood
Latin bacca ‘berry’
Latin homin-, hominem ‘man’
Latin lignum ‘wood’
Latin mel, mell- ‘honey’
Old French merde ‘dung’
Latin ovum ‘egg’
Latin sanguis ‘blood’
words:
-vore
-wright
forming nouns, as carnivore ‘a person or animal that eats meat’
‘a maker or builder’
➤ Th
e word wright comes from Old English wryhta, and was in general use until the 19th
century, also with the specific sense of ‘a carpenter’. In modern use it appears only in
combination (earliest recorded dates shown):
cartwright
millwright
playwright
a person who makes carts
a person who builds or maintains mills
a person who writes plays
ploughwright
shipwright
wainwright
a person who makes ploughs
a shipbuilder
a person who makes wagons
wheelwright
a person who makes wooden wheels
15th century (York Mystery Plays)
15th century
17th century (in the Workes of Ben
Jonson)
13th century
11th century
11th century (from the archaic term
wain ‘wagon’)
13th century
This page may be printed or photocopied for use with the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary 2nd edition © OUP SA (Pty) Ltd © Dictionary Unit for South African English.
-vorous